|
|
| Line 1: |
Line 1: |
| [[File:Pilate Inscription.JPG|thumb|220px|The ''[[Pilate Stone]]'' from [[Caesarea Maritima]], now at the [[Israel Museum]]]]
| | haha |
| | |
| Christian sources, such as the New Testament books in the Christian Bible, include detailed stories about Jesus but scholars differ on the historicity of specific episodes described in the Biblical accounts of Jesus.<ref name=MAPowell168 >{{cite book|title=Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee|first=Mark Allan|last=Powell|date=1998|isbn=0-664-25703-8|page=181}}</ref> The only two events subject to "almost universal assent" are that [[Baptism of Jesus|Jesus was baptized]] by [[John the Baptist]] and [[Crucifixion of Jesus|was crucified]] by the order of the [[Roman governor|Roman Prefect]] [[Pontius Pilate]].<ref name=AmyJill1>{{cite book|last=Levine|first=Amy-Jill|author-link=Amy-Jill Levine|title=The Historical Jesus in Context|editor=Amy-Jill Levine et al.|date=2006|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-00992-6|pages=1–2}}</ref><ref name=JDunn339>{{cite book|title=Jesus Remembered|first=James D. G.|last=Dunn|date=2003|isbn=0-8028-3931-2|page=339}} States that baptism and crucifixion are "two facts in the life of Jesus command almost universal assent".</ref><ref name=Hertzog1>{{cite book|title=Prophet and Teacher: An Introduction to the Historical Jesus|last=William|first=R. Herzog|date=2005|isbn=0664225284|pages=1–6}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated145">{{cite book |last=Crossan|first=John Dominic |title=Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography |isbn=0-06-061662-8 |year=1995 |publisher=HarperOne |quote=That he was crucified is as sure as anything historical can ever be, since both Josephus and Tacitus...agree with the Christian accounts on at least that basic fact. |page=145}}</ref><ref name=Evans2-5>{{cite book|title=Jesus and His Contemporaries: Comparative Studies|last=Craig|first=A. Evans|date=2001|isbn=0391041185|pages=2–5}}</ref><ref name=Tuckett126>{{cite book|last=Tuckett|first=Christopher M.|author-link=Christopher M. Tuckett|title=The Cambridge Companion to Jesus|editor=Markus N. A. Bockmuehl|date=2001|isbn=0521796784|pages=122–126}}</ref><ref name=Bart411>{{cite book|title=[[Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium]]|first=Bart D.|last=Ehrman|date=1999|isbn=0195124731|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=ix-xi}}</ref><ref name=Evans37>{{cite book|title=Authenticating the Activities of Jesus|first1=Bruce|last1=Chilton|first2=Craig A.|last2=Evans|date=2002|isbn=0391041649|pages=3–7}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| Non-Christian sources that are used to study and establish the historicity of Jesus include Jewish sources such as [[Josephus]], and Roman sources such as [[Tacitus]]. These sources are compared to Christian sources such as the [[Pauline Epistles]] and the [[Synoptic Gospels]]. These sources are usually independent of each other (e.g. Jewish sources do not draw upon Roman sources), and similarities and differences between them are used in the authentication process.<ref name="Camber121">{{cite book|title=The Cambridge Companion to Jesus|first=Markus N. A.|last=Bockmuehl|date=2001|isbn=0521796784|pages=121–125}}</ref><ref name=Chil460>{{cite book|title=Studying the Historical Jesus: Evaluations of the State of Current Research|first1=Bruce|last1=Chilton|first2=Craig A.|last2=Evans|date=1998|isbn=9004111425|pages=460–470}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| In a review of the state of research, the Jewish scholar [[Amy-Jill Levine]] stated that "no single picture of Jesus has convinced all, or even most scholars" and that all portraits of Jesus are subject to criticism by some group of scholars.<ref name=AmyJill1 />
| |
| | |
| ==Non-Christian sources==
| |
| | |
| ===Key sources===
| |
| | |
| ====Josephus====
| |
| {{Main article|Josephus on Jesus}}
| |
| [[File:Josephus Antiquitates Iudaice.jpg|thumb|170px|A page from a 1466 copy of ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'']]
| |
| The writings of the 1st century [[Roman citizenship|Romano]]-[[List of Jewish historians|Jewish historian]] [[Flavius Josephus]] include references to Jesus and the [[origins of Christianity]].<ref name=FeldHata8754>Feldman, Louis H.; Hata, Gōhei, eds. (1987). ''Josephus, Judaism and Christianity'' BRILL. {{ISBN|978-90-04-08554-1}}. pages 54-57</ref><ref name=Maier95284>Maier, Paul L. (December 1995). ''Josephus, the essential works: a condensation of Jewish antiquities and The Jewish war''. Kregel Academic. {{ISBN|978-0-8254-3260-6}} pages 284-285</ref> Josephus' ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'', written around 93–94 CE, includes two references to Jesus in Books [[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XVIII#Chapter 3|18]] and [[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XX#Chapter 9|20]].<ref name=FeldHata8754/><ref name=Maier9512>Maier, Paul L. (December 1995). ''Josephus, the essential works: a condensation of Jewish antiquities and The Jewish war''. Kregel Academic. {{ISBN|978-0-8254-3260-6}}-page 12</ref>
| |
| | |
| Of the two passages, the James passage in Book 20 is used by scholars to support the existence of Jesus, the ''Testimonium Flavianum'' in Book 18 his crucifixion.<ref name="Camber121"/> Josephus' James passage attests to the existence of Jesus as a historical person and that some of his contemporaries considered him the Messiah.<ref name=Camber121/><ref name=Kellum104>Kostenberger, Andreas J.; Kellum, L. Scott; Quarles, Charles L. (2009). ''The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament'' {{ISBN|0-8054-4365-7}} pages 104-105</ref> According to Bart Ehrman, Josephus' passage about Jesus was altered by a Christian scribe, including the reference to Jesus as the Messiah.<ref>Bart Ehrman, Jesus Interrupted, pg 159, Harper Collins</ref>
| |
| | |
| A textual argument against the authenticity of the James passage is that the use of the term "Christos" there seems unusual for Josephus.{{sfn|Eddy|Boyd|2007|pp=128-130}} An argument based on the flow of the text in the document is that, given that the mention of Jesus appears in the ''Antiquities'' before that of the John the Baptist, a Christian interpolator may have inserted it to place Jesus in the text before John.{{sfn|Eddy|Boyd|2007|pp=128-130}} A further argument against the authenticity of the James passage is that it would have read well even without a reference to Jesus.{{sfn|Eddy|Boyd|2007|pp=128-130}}
| |
| | |
| The passage deals with the death of "James the brother of Jesus" in Jerusalem. Whereas the works of Josephus refer to at least twenty different people with [[Jesus (name)|the name Jesus]], this passage specifies that this Jesus was the one "who was called Christ".<ref name=EB129>Eddy, Paul; Boyd, Gregory (2007). ''The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition''. {{ISBN|0-8010-3114-1}} page 129-130</ref><ref name=Painter137>Painter, John (2005). ''Just James: The Brother of Jesus in History and Tradition''. {{ISBN|0-567-04191-3}}-page 137</ref> [[Louis Feldman]] states that this passage, above others, indicates that Josephus did say something about Jesus.<ref>Feldman, Louis H.; Hata, Gōhei. ''Josephus, Judaism and Christianity''. BRILL. {{ISBN|90-04-08554-8}}. page 56</ref>
| |
| | |
| Modern scholarship has almost universally acknowledged the authenticity of the reference in [[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XX#Chapter 9|Book 20, Chapter 9, 1]] of the ''Antiquities'' to "the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ, whose name was James",<ref name=Feldman557>[[Louis Feldman]] ({{ISBN|90-04-08554-8}} pages 55-57) states that the authenticity of the Josephus passage on James has been "almost universally acknowledged".</ref> and considers it as having the highest level of authenticity among the references of Josephus to Christianity.<ref name=FeldHata8754/><ref name=Maier95284/><ref name=Voorst83>Van Voorst, Robert E. (2000). ''Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.. {{ISBN|0-8028-4368-9}}-page 83</ref><ref>Richard Bauckham "FOR WHAT OFFENSE WAS JAMES PUT TO DEATH?" in ''James the Just and Christian origins'' by Bruce Chilton, Craig A. Evans 1999 {{ISBN|90-04-11550-1}} pages 199-203</ref><ref name=Painter134>Painter, John (2005). ''Just James: The Brother of Jesus in History and Tradition''. {{ISBN|0-567-04191-3}} pages 134-141</ref><ref name=refsummary >Sample quotes from previous references: Van Voorst ({{ISBN|0-8028-4368-9}}-page 83) states that the overwhelming majority of scholars consider both the reference to "the brother of Jesus called Christ" and the entire passage that includes it as authentic." Bauckham ({{ISBN|90-04-11550-1}} pages 199-203) states: "the vast majority have considered it to be authentic". Meir ({{ISBN|978-0-8254-3260-6}} pages 108-109) agrees with Feldman that few have questioned the authenticity of the James passage. Setzer ({{ISBN|0-8006-2680-X}} pages 108-109) also states that few have questioned its authenticity.</ref>
| |
| | |
| The ''Testimonium Flavianum'' (meaning the testimony of Flavius [Josephus]) is the name given to the passage found in [[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XVIII#Chapter 3|Book 18, Chapter 3, 3]] of the ''Antiquities'' in which Josephus describes the condemnation and crucifixion of Jesus at the hands of the Roman authorities.<ref>Flavius Josephus; Whiston, William; Maier, Paul L. (May 1999). ''The New Complete Works of Josephus''. Kregel Academic. {{ISBN|0-8254-2948-X}} page 662</ref><ref name=Schrck38 >Schreckenberg, Heinz; Schubert, Kurt (1992a). ''Jewish Traditions in Early Christian Literature. 2''. {{ISBN|90-232-2653-4}} pages 38-41</ref> Scholars have differing opinions on the total or partial authenticity of the reference in the passage to the execution of Jesus by [[Pontius Pilate]].<ref name=FeldHata8754/><ref name=Schrck38 /> The general scholarly view is that while the ''Testimonium Flavianum'' is most likely not authentic in its entirety, it is broadly agreed upon that it originally consisted of an authentic nucleus with a reference to the execution of Jesus by Pilate which was then subject to Christian interpolation.<ref name=Kellum104/><ref name=Schrck38 /><ref>Evans, Craig A. (2001). ''Jesus and His Contemporaries: Comparative Studies'' {{ISBN|0-391-04118-5}}-page 316</ref><ref>Wansbrough, Henry (2004). ''Jesus and the oral Gospel tradition''. {{ISBN|0-567-04090-9}}-page 185</ref><ref name=Dunn141/> Although the exact nature and extent of the Christian redaction remains unclear,<ref>Wilhelm Schneemelcher, Robert McLachlan Wilson, ''New Testament Apocrypha: Gospels and Related Writings'', page 490 (James Clarke & Co. Ltd, 2003). {{ISBN|0-664-22721-X}}</ref> there is broad consensus as to what the original text of the ''Testimonium'' by Josephus would have looked like.<ref name=Dunn141/>
| |
| | |
| The references found in ''Antiquities'' have no parallel texts in the other work by Josephus such as the ''[[The Wars of the Jews|Jewish War]]'', written twenty years earlier, but some scholars have provided explanations for their absence, such as that the ''Antiquities'' covers a longer time period and that during the twenty-year gap between the writing of the ''Jewish Wars'' (c. 70 CE) and ''Antiquities'' (after 90 CE) Christians had become more important in Rome and were hence given attention in the ''Antiquities''.<ref>Feldman, Louis H. (1984). "Flavius Josephus Revisited: The Man, his Writings and his Significance". In Temporini, Hildegard; Haase, Wolfgang. Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt, Part 2. pp. 763–771. {{ISBN|3-11-009522-X}} page 826</ref>
| |
| | |
| A number of variations exist between the statements by Josephus regarding the deaths of James and the [[New Testament]] accounts.<ref name=Painter143>Painter, John (2005). ''Just James: The Brother of Jesus in History and Tradition''. {{ISBN|0-567-04191-3}} pages 143-145</ref> Scholars generally view these variations as indications that the Josephus passages are not interpolations, because a Christian interpolator would more likely have made them correspond to the Christian traditions.<ref name=EB129/><ref name=Painter143/> Robert Eisenman provides numerous early Christian sources that confirm the Josephus testament, that James was the brother of Jesus.<ref>Eisenman, Robert (2002), "James the Brother of Jesus: the key to unlocking the secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls" (Watkins)</ref>
| |
| | |
| ====Tacitus====
| |
| {{Main article|Tacitus on Christ}}
| |
| [[File:Lipsius manuscript.jpg|thumb|170px|The title page of 1598 edition of the works of Tacitus, kept in [[Empoli]], Italy.]]
| |
| The [[Roman historiography|Roman historian]] and [[Roman senate|senator]] [[Tacitus]] referred to [[Jesus|Christ]], [[Crucifixion of Jesus|his execution]] by [[Pontius Pilate]] and the existence of [[early Christians]] in Rome in his final work, ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annals]]'' (written ''ca.'' CE 116), [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#44|book 15, chapter 44]].<ref>P.E. Easterling, E. J. Kenney (general editors), ''The Cambridge History of Latin Literature'', page 892 (Cambridge University Press, 1982, reprinted 1996). {{ISBN|0-521-21043-7}}</ref><ref name=brent32 >''A political history of early Christianity'' by Allen Brent 2009 {{ISBN|0-567-03175-6}} pages 32-34</ref><ref name="New Testament 2000. p 39- 53">[[Robert Van Voorst]], ''Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence'', Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2000. p 39- 53</ref> The relevant passage reads: "called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus."
| |
| | |
| Scholars generally consider Tacitus's reference to the execution of Jesus by [[Pontius Pilate]] to be both authentic, and of historical value as an independent Roman source about early Christianity that is in unison with other historical records.<ref name=VVoorst39 /><ref name=CEvans42 >''Jesus and His Contemporaries: Comparative Studies'' by Craig A. Evans 2001 {{ISBN|0-391-04118-5}}-page 42</ref><ref name="autogenerated343">''Mercer dictionary of the Bible'' by Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard 2001 {{ISBN|0-86554-373-9}}-page 343</ref><ref name="interpretation2004">''Pontius Pilate in History and Interpretation'' by Helen K. Bond 2004 {{ISBN|0-521-61620-4}}-page xi</ref><ref name=Portier263 /> William L. Portier has stated that the consistency in the references by Tacitus, Josephus and the letters to [[Emperor Trajan]] by [[Pliny the Younger]] reaffirm the validity of all three accounts.<ref name=Portier263 >''Tradition and Incarnation: Foundations of Christian Theology'' by William L. Portier 1993 {{ISBN|0-8091-3467-5}}-page 263</ref>
| |
| | |
| Tacitus was a patriotic [[Roman senator]] and his writings shows no sympathy towards Christians.<ref name="CEvans42"/><ref name="autogenerated293">''Ancient Rome'' by William E. Dunstan 2010 {{ISBN|0-7425-6833-4}}-page 293</ref><ref name="autogenerated293"/><ref name= MAPowell33 >''Jesus as a figure in history: how modern historians view the man from Galilee'' by Mark Allan Powell 1998 {{ISBN|0-664-25703-8}}-page 33</ref><ref>''An introduction to the New Testament and the origins of Christianity'' by Delbert Royce Burkett 2002 {{ISBN|0-521-00720-8}}-page 485</ref> [[Andreas Köstenberger]] and separately [[Robert E. Van Voorst]] state that the tone of the passage towards Christians is far too negative to have been authored by a Christian scribe - a conclusion shared by [[John P. Meier]]<ref name=VVoorst39 >Robert E. Van Voorst, ''Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence'', Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2000. p 39- 53</ref><ref>''The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament'' by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 {{ISBN|978-0-8054-4365-3}} pages 109-110</ref><ref>Meier, John P., [[John P. Meier#A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus|''A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus]], Doubleday: 1991. vol 1: p. 168-171.</ref> [[Robert E. Van Voorst]] states that "of all Roman writers, Tacitus gives us the most precise information about Christ".<ref name=VVoorst39 />
| |
| | |
| [[John Dominic Crossan]] considers the passage important in establishing that Jesus existed and was crucified, and states: "That he was crucified is as sure as anything historical can ever be, since both Josephus and Tacitus... agree with the Christian accounts on at least that basic fact."<ref>Crossan, John Dominic (1995). Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography. HarperOne. {{ISBN|0-06-061662-8}}-page 145</ref> [[Bart D. Ehrman]] states: "Tacitus's report confirms what we know from other sources, that Jesus was executed by order of the Roman governor of Judea, Pontius Pilate, sometime during Tiberius's reign."<ref name = "Ehrman-212">Ehrman p 212</ref> Eddy and Boyd state that it is now "firmly established" that Tacitus provides a non-Christian confirmation of the crucifixion of Jesus.<ref name=EddyB127>Eddy, Paul; Boyd, Gregory (2007). ''The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition'' Baker Academic, {{ISBN|0-8010-3114-1}} page 127</ref>
| |
| | |
| Although the majority of scholars consider it to be genuine, a few scholars question the authenticity of the passage given that Tacitus was born 25 years after Jesus' death.<ref name=VVoorst39 />
| |
| | |
| Some scholars have debated the historical value of the passage given that Tacitus does not reveal the source of his information.<ref>F.F. Bruce,''Jesus and Christian Origins Outside the New Testament'', (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1974) p. 23</ref> [[Gerd Theissen]] and Annette Merz argue that Tacitus at times had drawn on earlier historical works now lost to us, and he may have used official sources from a Roman archive in this case; however, if Tacitus had been copying from an official source, some scholars would expect him to have labeled Pilate correctly as a ''prefect'' rather than a ''procurator''.<ref>Theissen and Merz p.83</ref> Theissen and Merz state that Tacitus gives us a description of widespread prejudices about Christianity and a few precise details about "Christus" and Christianity, the source of which remains unclear.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Theissen, Gerd |author2=Merz, Annette | title=The historical Jesus: a comprehensive guide |url = https://books.google.com/?id=3ZU97DQMH6UC&pg=PA83| year=1998 | publisher=Fortress Press | location=Minneapolis | isbn=978-0-8006-3122-2 | page=83}}</ref> However, Paul R. Eddy has stated that given his position as a senator Tacitus was also likely to have had access to official Roman documents of the time and did not need other sources.<ref name=Eddy181 >''The Jesus legend: a case for the historical reliability of the synoptic gospels'' by Paul R. Eddy, et al 2007 {{ISBN|0-8010-3114-1}} pages 181-183</ref>
| |
| | |
| Michael Martin notes that the authenticity of this passage of the Annals has also been disputed on the grounds that Tacitus would not have used the word “messiah” in an authentic Roman document.<ref>The Case Against Christianity, By Michael Martin, pg 50-51, at https://books.google.com/books?id=wWkC4dTmK0AC&pg=PA52&dq=historicity+of+jesus&hl=en&sa=X&ei=o-_8U5-yEtTH7AbBpoCoAg&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=tacitus&f=false</ref>
| |
| | |
| Weaver notes that Tacitus spoke of the persecution of Christians, but no other Christian author wrote of this persecution for a hundred years.<ref>The Historical Jesus in the Twentieth Century: 1900-1950, By Walter P. Weaver, pg 53, pg 57, at https://books.google.com/books?id=1CZbuFBdAMUC&pg=PA45&dq=historicity+of+jesus&hl=en&sa=X&ei=o-_8U5-yEtTH7AbBpoCoAg&ved=0CEoQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=tacitus&f=false</ref>
| |
| | |
| Hotema notes that this passage was not quoted by any Church father up to the 15th century, although the passage would have been very useful to them in their work;<ref name="books.google.co.za">Secret of Regeneration, By Hilton Hotema, pg 100, at https://books.google.com/books?id=jCaopp3R5B0C&pg=PA100&dq=interpolations+in+tacitus&hl=en&sa=X&ei=CRf-U9-VGZCe7AbxrIDQCA&ved=0CCAQ6AEwATge#v=onepage&q=interpolations%20in%20tacitus&f=false</ref> and that the passage refers to the Christians in Rome being a multitude, while at that time the Christian congregation in Rome would actually have been very small.<ref name="books.google.co.za"/>
| |
| | |
| [[Richard Carrier]] has put forward the ideas that the 'Christ, the author of this name, was executed by the procurator Pontius Pilate in the reign of Tiberius' line is a Christian interpolation and that Tacitus wrote about Chrestians not Christians.<ref>Carrier, Richard (2014) "The Prospect of a Christian Interpolation in Tacitus, Annals 15.44" ''Vigiliae Christianae'', Volume 68, Issue 3, pages 264 – 283 (an earlier and more detailed version appears in Carrier's ''Hitler Homer Bible Christ'')</ref><ref>Carrier, Richard (2014) ''On the Historicity of Jesus'' Sheffield Phoenix Press {{ISBN|978-1-909697-49-2}} pg 344</ref>
| |
| | |
| Scholars have also debated the issue of hearsay in the reference by Tacitus. Charles Guignebert argued that "So long as there is that possibility [that Tacitus is merely echoing what Christians themselves were saying], the passage remains quite worthless".<ref>''Jesus'', University Books, New York, 1956, p.13</ref> R. T. France states that the Tacitus passage is at best just Tacitus repeating what he had heard through Christians.<ref>{{Cite book|authorlink=RT France|last=France|first=RT|title=Evidence for Jesus (Jesus Library)|publisher=Trafalgar Square Publishing|year=1986|isbn=0-340-38172-8|pages=19–20}}</ref> However, Paul R. Eddy has stated that as Rome's preeminent historian, Tacitus was generally known for checking his sources and was not in the habit of reporting gossip.<ref name=Eddy181 /> Tacitus was a member of the [[Quindecimviri sacris faciundis]], a council of priests whose duty it was to supervise foreign religious cults in Rome, which as Van Voorst points out, makes it reasonable to suppose that he would have acquired knowledge of Christian origins through his work with that body.<ref name=Handbook>{{cite book|last=Van Voorst|first=Robert E.|title=Handbook for the Study of the Historical Jesus|date=2011|publisher=Brill Academic Pub|isbn=978-9004163720|page=2159}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Relevant sources===
| |
| | |
| ====Mara bar Sarapion====
| |
| {{Main article|Mara Bar-Serapion on Jesus}}
| |
| [[Mara Bar-Serapion|Mara]] (son of Sarapion) was a [[Stoicism|Stoic philosopher]] from the [[Syria (Roman province)|Roman province of Syria]].<ref name=Cradle110 >''The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament'' by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 {{ISBN|978-0-8054-4365-3}}-page 110</ref><ref name=Ute>''Evidence of Greek Philosophical Concepts in the Writings of Ephrem the Syrian'' by Ute Possekel 1999 {{ISBN|90-429-0759-2}} pages 29-30</ref> Sometime between 73 CE and the 3rd century, Mara wrote a letter to his son (also called Sarapion) which may contain an early non-Christian reference to the [[crucifixion of Jesus]].<ref name=Cradle110 /><ref name=Chilton455 >''Studying the Historical Jesus: Evaluations of the State of Current Research'' edited by Bruce Chilton, Craig A. Evans 1998 {{ISBN|90-04-11142-5}} pages 455-457</ref><ref name=VVoorst53/>
| |
| | |
| The letter refers to the unjust treatment of "three wise men": the murder of [[Socrates]], the burning of [[Pythagoras]], and the execution of "the wise king" of the Jews.<ref name=Cradle110 /><ref name=Ute /> The author explains that in all three cases the wrongdoing resulted in the future punishment of those responsible by God and that when the wise are oppressed, not only does their wisdom triumph in the end, but God punishes their oppressors.<ref name=VVoorst53/>
| |
| | |
| The letter includes no Christian themes and the author is presumed to be a [[pagan]].<ref name=Ute/><ref name="Chilton455"/> Some scholars see the reference to the execution of the "wise king" of the Jews as an early non-Christian reference to Jesus.<ref name=Cradle110 /><ref name=Ute/><ref name=Chilton455 /> Criteria that support the non-Christian origin of the letter include the observation that "king of the Jews" was not a Christian title, and that the letter's premise that Jesus lives on based on the wisdom of his teachings is in contrast to the Christian concept that Jesus continues to live through his [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]].<ref name=Chilton455 /><ref name=VVoorst53>''Jesus outside the New Testament: an introduction to the ancient evidence'' by Robert E. Van Voorst 2000 {{ISBN|0-8028-4368-9}} pages 53-55</ref>
| |
| | |
| Scholars such as [[Robert Van Voorst]] see little doubt that the reference to the execution of the "[[Jesus, King of the Jews|king of the Jews]]" is about the [[Crucifixion of Jesus|death of Jesus]].<ref name="VVoorst53"/> Others such as [[Craig A. Evans]] see less value in the letter, given its uncertain date, and the possible ambiguity in the reference.<ref name=Evans41 >''Jesus and His Contemporaries: Comparative Studies'' by Craig A. Evans 2001 {{ISBN|978-0-391-04118-9}}-page 41</ref>
| |
| | |
| ====Suetonius====
| |
| {{Main article|Suetonius on Christians}}
| |
| [[File:Suetonius Lives of the Twelve Caesars 1540.jpg|thumb|150px|A 1540 copy of ''[[The Twelve Caesars|Lives of the Twelve Caesars]]'' by Suetonius ]]
| |
| The [[Roman historiography|Roman historian]] [[Suetonius]] (c. 69 – after 122 CE) made references to [[early Christianity|early Christians]] and their leader in his work ''[[The Twelve Caesars|Lives of the Twelve Caesars]]'' (written 121 CE).<ref name="Cradle110"/><ref name=lives >''Lives of the Caesars'' by Suetonius, Catharine Edwards 2001 {{ISBN|0192832719}} pages 184 and 203</ref><ref name=BCCrossan3 >''Birth of Christianity'' by John Dominic Crossan 1999 {{ISBN|0567086682}} pages 3-10</ref><ref name=vvorst29 >Robert E. Van Voorst, ''Jesus outside the New Testament: an introduction to the ancient evidence'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2000. pp 29-39</ref> The references appear in [[wikisource:The Lives of the Twelve Caesars/Claudius#25|Claudius 25]] and [[wikisource:The Lives of the Twelve Caesars/Nero#16|Nero 16]] which describe the lives of [[Roman Emperor]]s [[Claudius]] and [[Nero]].<ref name=lives /> The Nero 16 passage refers to the abuses by Nero and mentions how he inflicted punishment on Christians - which is generally dated to around CE 64.<ref>''Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire'' by Matthew Bunson 1994 {{ISBN|081602135X}} page 111</ref> This passage shows the clear contempt of Suetonius for Christians - the same contempt expressed by [[Tacitus]] and [[Pliny the younger]] in their writings, but does not refer to Jesus himself.<ref name=BCCrossan3 />
| |
| | |
| The earlier passage in Claudius, may include a reference to Jesus, but is subject to debate among scholars.<ref name=vvorst29 /> In [[wikisource:The Lives of the Twelve Caesars/Claudius#25|Claudius 25]] Suetonius refers to the expulsion of Jews by Claudius and states:<ref name=lives />
| |
| | |
| :"Since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, he expelled them from Rome."
| |
| | |
| The reference in Claudius 25 involves the agitations in the Jewish community which led to the expulsion of some Jews from Rome by Claudius, and is likely the same event mentioned in the [[Acts of the Apostles]] ([[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#18:2|18:2]]).<ref name=Cradle110 /> Most historians date this expulsion to around CE 49-50.<ref name=Cradle110 /><ref name="autogenerated18">''Christianity and the Roman Empire: background texts'' by Ralph Martin Novak 2001 {{ISBN|1-56338-347-0}} pages 18-22</ref> Suetonius refers to the leader of the Christians as ''Chrestus'', a term also used by [[Tacitus on Christ|used by Tacitus]], referred in Latin dictionaries as a (amongst other things) version of 'Christus'.<ref name=France42 >R. T. France. The Evidence for Jesus. (2006). Regent College Publishing {{ISBN|1-57383-370-3}}. p. 42</ref> However, the wording used by Suetonius implies that Chrestus was alive at the time of the disturbance and was agitating the Jews in Rome.<ref name=Dunn141>''Jesus Remembered'' by James D. G. Dunn 2003 {{ISBN|0-8028-3931-2}} pages 141-143</ref><ref name=Cradle110 /> This weakens the historical value of his reference as a whole, and there is no overall scholarly agreement about its value as a reference to Jesus.<ref name=Dunn141/><ref name=vvorst29/> However, the confusion of Suetonius also points to the lack of Christian interpolation, for a Christian scribe would not have confused the Jews with Christians.<ref name=Dunn141/><ref name=vvorst29/>
| |
| | |
| Most scholars assume that in the reference Jesus is meant and that the disturbances mentioned were due to the [[Early centers of Christianity#Rome|spread of Christianity in Rome]].<ref name=vvorst29/><ref name=Feldman332>Louis H. Feldman, ''Jewish Life and Thought among Greeks and Romans'' (1 Oct 1996) {{ISBN|0567085252}} p. 332</ref><ref>{{citation|last=González|first=Justo|authorlink=Justo González|title=The Story of Christianity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QZO-lwEACAAJ|accessdate=23 April 2013|volume=1|year=1984|publisher=Prince Press|isbn=978-1-56563-522-7|page=32}}</ref> However, scholars are divided on the value of the Suetonius' reference. Some scholars such as [[Craig A. Evans]], [[John P. Meier|John Meier]] and [[Craig S. Keener]] see it as a likely reference to Jesus.<ref name=BoydE166>Eddy, Paul; Boyd, Gregory (2007). ''The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition''. {{ISBN|0-8010-3114-1}} pages 166</ref><ref>''The Historical Jesus of the Gospels'' by Craig S. Keener 2012 {{ISBN|0802868886}} page 66</ref> Others such as Stephen Benko and H. Dixon Slingerland see it as having little or no historical value.<ref name=vvorst29/>
| |
| | |
| Menahem Stern states Suetonius definitely was referring to Jesus; because he would have added "a certain" to Chrestus if he had meant some unknown agitator.<ref>Menahem Stern, 1980, Jerusalem, Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism Vol.2, p.116</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===={{anchor|The Talmud}}The Talmud====
| |
| {{see also|Jesus in the Talmud|Yeshu}}
| |
| [[File:Codex Reuchlin 2 96v.jpg|thumb|170px|A page from ''[[Sanhedrin (Talmud)|Sanhedrin]]'' in the 12th century Reuchlin Codex [[Talmud]]]]
| |
| The Babylonian [[Talmud]] in a few cases includes possible references to Jesus using the terms "Yeshu", "Yeshu ha-Notzri", "ben Stada", and "ben Pandera". Some of these references probably date back to the [[Tannaim|Tannaitic period]] (70–200 CE).<ref name=Blom280/><ref name=Kellum107 >Kostenberger, Andreas J.; Kellum, L. Scott; Quarles, Charles L. (2009). ''The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament'' {{ISBN|0-8054-4365-7}}. pages 107-109</ref> In some cases, it is not clear if the references are to Jesus, or other people, and scholars continue to debate their historical value, and exactly which references, if any, may be to Jesus.<ref name=BEddy170>Eddy, Paul; Boyd, Gregory (2007). ''The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition'' {{ISBN|0-8010-3114-1}} pages 170-174</ref><ref>Theissen, Gerd, Annette Merz, ''The historical Jesus: a comprehensive guide'', Fortress Press, 1998 pages 72-76</ref><ref>''The Blackwell Companion to Jesus'' by Delbert Burkett 2010 {{ISBN|140519362X}} page 220</ref>
| |
| | |
| [[Robert Van Voorst]] states that the scarcity of Jewish references to Jesus is not surprising, given that Jesus was not a prominent issue for the Jews during the first century, and after the devastation caused by the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|Siege of Jerusalem]] in the year 70, Jewish scholars were focusing on preserving [[Judaism]] itself, rather than paying much attention to Christianity.<ref>Van Voorst, Robert E. (2000). ''Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence'' Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.. {{ISBN|0-8028-4368-9}} pages 129-130</ref>
| |
| | |
| Robert Eisenman argues that the derivation of Jesus of Nazareth from "ha-Notzri" is impossible on etymological grounds, as it would suggest rather "the [[Nazirite]]" rather than "the Nazarene".<ref>Einsenman, Robert (2002), "James; the Brother of Jesus" (Watkins)</ref>
| |
| | |
| Van Voorst states that although the question of who was referred to in various points in the Talmud remains subject to debate among scholars, in the case of ''[[Sanhedrin (Talmud)|Sanhedrin 43a]]'' (generally considered the most important reference to Jesus in rabbinic literature), Jesus can be confirmed as the subject of the passage, not only from the reference itself, but from the context that surrounds it, and there is little doubt that it refers to the death of Jesus of Nazareth.<ref name=Leslie693>In ''Jesus: The Complete Guide'' edited by J. L. Houlden (8 Feb 2006) {{ISBN|082648011X}} pages 693-694</ref><ref name=Voorst117118>Van Voorst, Robert E. (2000). ''Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence'' Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.. {{ISBN|0-8028-4368-9}} pages 177-118</ref> [[Christopher M. Tuckett]] states that if it is accepted that death narrative of Sanhedrin 43a refers to Jesus of Nazareth then it provides evidence of Jesus' existence and execution.<ref>In ''The Cambridge Companion to Jesus'' by Markus N. A. Bockmuehl 2001 {{ISBN|0521796784}} page 123</ref>
| |
| | |
| [[Andreas Kostenberger]] states that the passage is a [[Tannaitic]] reference to the trial and death of Jesus at Passover and is most likely earlier than other references to Jesus in the Talmud.<ref name=Kellum107 /> The passage reflects hostility toward Jesus among the rabbis and includes this text:<ref name=Blom280>''Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey'' by Craig L. Blomberg (1 Aug 2009) {{ISBN|0805444823}} page 280</ref><ref name=Kellum107 />
| |
| <blockquote>
| |
| It is taught: On the eve of Passover they hung Yeshu and the crier went forth for forty days beforehand declaring that "[Yeshu] is going to be stoned for practicing witchcraft, for enticing and leading Israel astray. Anyone who knows something to clear him should come forth and exonerate him." But no one had anything exonerating for him and they hung him on the eve of Passover.<ref name="ReferenceA">''[[Sanhedrin (Talmud)|Sanhedrin]]'' 43a.</ref> </blockquote>
| |
| | |
| [[Peter Schäfer]] states that there can be no doubt that the narrative of the execution of Jesus in the Talmud refers to Jesus of Nazareth, but states that the rabbinic literature in question are not [[Tannaitic]] but from a later [[Amoraic]] period and may have drawn on the Christian gospels, and may have been written as responses to them.<ref name=PeterS141>''Jesus in the Talmud'' by Peter Schäfer (24 Aug 2009) {{ISBN|0691143188}} page 141 and 9</ref> [[Bart Ehrman]] and separately Mark Allan Powell state that given that the Talmud references are quite late, they can give no historically reliable information about the teachings or actions of Jesus during his life.<ref>''Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium'' by Bart Ehrman 2001 {{ISBN|019512474X}} page 63</ref><ref>''Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee'' by Mark Allan Powell (1 Nov 1998) {{ISBN|0664257038}} page 34</ref>
| |
| | |
| Another reference in early second century Rabbinic literature ([[Tosefta|Tosefta Hullin]] II 22) refers to Rabbi Eleazar ben Dama who was bitten by a snake, but was denied healing in the name of Jesus by another Rabbi for it was against the law, and thus died.<ref name=Bammel393/> This passage reflects the attitude of Jesus' early Jewish opponents, i.e. that his miracles were based on evil powers.<ref name=Bammel393>''Jesus and the Politics of his Day'' by E. Bammel and C. F. D. Moule (30 Aug 1985) {{ISBN|0521313449}} page 393</ref><ref name=Kee71>''The Beginnings of Christianity'' by Howard Clark Kee (22 Nov 2005) {{ISBN|0567027414}} page 71</ref>
| |
| | |
| Eddy and Boyd, who question the value of several of the Talmudic references state that the significance of the Talmud to historical Jesus research is that it never denies the existence of Jesus, but accuses him of sorcery, thus indirectly confirming his existence.<ref name=BEddy170/> [[R. T. France]] and separately Edgar V. McKnight state that the divergence of the Talmud statements from the Christian accounts and their negative nature indicate that they are about a person who existed.<ref>R. T. France ''The Evidence for Jesus'' 2006 {{ISBN|1573833703}} page 39</ref><ref>''Jesus Christ in History and Scripture'' by Edgar V. McKnight 1999 {{ISBN|0865546770}} pages 29-30</ref> Craig Blomberg states that the denial of the existence of Jesus was never part of the Jewish tradition, which instead accused him of being a sorcerer and magician, as also reflected in other sources such as [[Celsus]].<ref name=Blom280/> [[Andreas Kostenberger]] states that the overall conclusion that can be drawn from the references in the Talmud is that Jesus was a historical person whose existence was never denied by the Jewish tradition, which instead focused on discrediting him.<ref name=Kellum107 />
| |
| | |
| ===Minor sources===
| |
| {{Main article|Pliny the Younger on Christians|Dead Sea Scrolls}}
| |
| | |
| '''[[Pliny the Younger]]''' (c. 61 - c. 112), the provincial governor of [[Kingdom of Pontus|Pontus]] and [[Bithynia]], wrote to [[Trajan|Emperor Trajan]] ''c''. 112 [[Pliny the Younger on Christians|concerning how to deal with Christians]], who refused to [[Imperial cult (Ancient Rome)|worship the emperor]], and instead worshiped "Christus". Charles Guignebert, who does not doubt that Jesus of the Gospels lived in Gallilee in the 1st century, nevertheless dismisses this letter as acceptable evidence for a historical Jesus.<ref>Jesus, by Ch. Gugnebert, Translated from the French by S. H. Hooke, University Book, New York, 1956, p. 14</ref>
| |
| | |
| '''[[Thallus (historian)|Thallus]]''', of whom very little is known, and none of whose writings survive, wrote a history allegedly around the middle to late first century CE, to which [[Eusebius]] referred. [[Sextus Julius Africanus|Julius Africanus]], writing ''c'' 221, links a reference in the third book of the ''History'' to the period of darkness described in the crucifixion accounts in three of the Gospels .<ref name=Eddy122 /><ref>Julius Africanus, ''Extant Writings'' XVIII in ''Ante-Nicene Fathers'', ed. A. Roberts and J. Donaldson (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1973) vol. VI, p. 130</ref> It is not known whether Thallus made any mention to the crucifixion accounts; if he did, it would be the earliest noncanonical reference to a gospel episode, but its usefulness in determining the historicity of Jesus is uncertain.<ref name=Eddy122 >Eddy, Paul; Boyd, Gregory (2007). ''The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition''. {{ISBN|0-8010-3114-1}} pages 122-126</ref> The dating of Thallus is dependent on him writing about an event during the 207th Olympiad (49-52 AD), which means he wrote after that date, not near that date. This depends on the text being corrupt, which would mean Thallus could have been writing after the 217th Olympiad (89-92 AD), or even the 167th Olympiad (112-109 BC). He is first referenced by Theophilus, writing around 180 AD, which means Thallus could have written any time between 109 BC and 180 AD. All we know is Thallus mentioned a solar eclipse, and as solar eclipses are not possible at Passover, that would mean Thallus was not talking about the crucifixion of Jesus at all.<ref>http://infidels.org/library/modern/richard_carrier/thallus.html</ref>
| |
| | |
| '''[[Phlegon of Tralles]]''', A.D. 80 - 140, similar to Thallus, Julius Africanus mentions a historian named Phlegon who wrote a chronicle of history around A.D. 140, where he records:
| |
| “Phlegon records that, in the time of Tiberius Caesar, at full moon, there was a full eclipse of the sun from the sixth to the ninth hour.” (Africanus, Chronography, 18:1) Phlegon is also mentioned by Origen (an early church theologian and scholar, born in Alexandria):
| |
| “Now Phlegon, in the thirteenth or fourteenth book, I think, of his Chronicles, not only ascribed to Jesus a knowledge of future events . . . but also testified that the result corresponded to His predictions.” (Origen Against Celsus, Book 2, Chapter 14)
| |
| “And with regard to the eclipse in the time of Tiberius Caesar, in whose reign Jesus appears to have been crucified, and the great earthquakes which then took place … ” (Origen Against Celsus, Book 2, Chapter 33)
| |
| “Jesus, while alive, was of no assistance to himself, but that he arose after death, and exhibited the marks of his punishment, and showed how his hands had been pierced by nails.” (Origen Against Celsus, Book 2, Chapter 59).<ref>http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/origen162.html see book 2, chapter 33 and 59</ref> However, Eusebius in The Chronicon (written in the 4th century AD) records what Phlegon said verbatim. "Now, in the fourth year of the 202nd Olympiad [32 AD], a great eclipse of the sun occurred at the sixth hour [noon] that excelled every other before it, turning the day into such darkness of night that the stars could be seen in heaven, and the earth moved in Bithynia, toppling many buildings in the city of Nicaea." Phlegon never mentions Jesus or the 3 hour darkness. He also mentions a solar eclipse, which can not occur at Passover. Apart from the year (which may be a corruption), this description fits an earthquake and eclipse that occurred in North West Turkey on November, 29 AD.<ref>http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEsearch/SEsearchmap.php?Ecl=00291124</ref>
| |
| | |
| '''[[Celsus]]''' writing late in the second century produced the first full-scale attack on Christianity.<ref name=Eddy122 /><ref name=Voorst6568 /> Celsus' document has not survived but in the third century [[Origen]] replied to it, and what is known of Celsus' writing is through the responses of Origen.<ref name=Eddy122 /> According to Origen, Celsus accused Jesus of being a magician and a sorcerer. While the statements of Celsus may be seen as valuable, they have little historical value, given that the wording of the original writings can not be examined.<ref name=Voorst6568>Van Voorst, Robert E. (2000). ''Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.. {{ISBN|0-8028-4368-9}} pages 65-68</ref>
| |
| | |
| The '''[[Dead Sea scrolls]]''' are first century or older writings that show the language and customs of some Jews of Jesus' time.<ref name="Edwards2004">{{Cite book|author=Douglas R. Edwards|title=Religion and society in Roman Palestine: old questions, new approaches|url=https://books.google.com/?id=Wq-zBEqzRx0C&pg=PA164|accessdate=4 August 2010|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-30597-6|pages=164–}}</ref> Scholars such as [[Henry Chadwick (theologian)|Henry Chadwick]] see the similar uses of languages and viewpoints recorded in the New Testament and the Dead Sea scrolls as valuable in showing that the New Testament portrays the first century period that it reports and is not a product of a later period.<ref name="Chadwick2003">{{Cite book|author=Henry Chadwick|title=The Church in ancient society: from Galilee to Gregory the Great|url=https://books.google.com/?id=nLic1cabc8gC&pg=PA15|accessdate=4 August 2010|year=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-926577-0|pages=15–}}</ref><ref name="Brooke2005">{{Cite book|author=George J. Brooke|title=The Dead Sea scrolls and the New Testament|url=https://books.google.com/?id=hPx8vvYPuc8C&pg=PA20|accessdate=4 August 2010|date=1 May 2005|publisher=Fortress Press|isbn=978-0-8006-3723-1|pages=20–}}</ref> However, the relationship between the Dead Sea scrolls and the historicity of Jesus has been the subject of highly controversial theories, and although new theories continue to appear, there is no overall scholarly agreement about their impact on the historicity of Jesus, despite the usefulness of the scrolls in shedding light on first-century Jewish traditions.<ref>''Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey'' by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 {{ISBN|0805444823}} pages 53-54</ref><ref>Van Voorst, Robert E (2000). ''Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence''. Eerdmans Publishing. {{ISBN|0-8028-4368-9}} pages 75-78</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Disputed sources===
| |
| The following sources are disputed, and of limited historical value, but they are at least proof of Christians existing and being known and talked about in the first and second centuries.
| |
| | |
| * [[Lucian on Jesus|Lucian of Samosata]] (born 115 CE), a well-known [[Greek people|Greek]] satirist and traveling lecturer [[Lucian on Jesus|wrote mockingly of the followers of Jesus]] for their ignorance and credulity.<ref name=Eddy122 /><ref name="Robert E. Van Voorst 2000. pp 58-64">Robert E. Van Voorst, ''Jesus outside the New Testament'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2000. pp 58-64</ref> Given that Lucian's understanding of Christian traditions has significant gaps and errors, his writing is unlikely to have been influenced by Christians themselves, and he may provide an independent statement about the crucifixion of Jesus.<ref name=Eddy122 /> However, given the nature of the text as satire, Lucian may have embellished the stories he heard and his account cannot have a high degree of historical reliability.<ref name="Robert E. Van Voorst 2000. pp 58-64"/>
| |
| * [[Trajan|Emperor Trajan]] (c. 53 - 117), the Emperor Trajan in reply to a letter sent by [[Pliny the Younger]] "You observed proper procedure, my dear Pliny, in sifting the cases of those who had been denounced to you as Christians. For it is not possible to lay down any general rule to serve as a kind of fixed standard. They are not to be sought out; if they are denounced and proved guilty, they are to be punished, with this reservation, that whoever denies that he is a Christian and really proves it--that is, by worshiping our gods--even though he was under suspicion in the past, shall obtain pardon through repentance. But anonymously posted accusations ought to have no place in any prosecution. For this is both a dangerous kind of precedent and out of keeping with the spirit of our age. "
| |
| * [[Epictetus]] (A.D. 55 - 135) A possible yet disputed reference to Christians as "Galileans" in his "Discourses" 4.7.6 and 2.9.19-21 "Therefore, if madness can produce this attitude[of detachment] toward these things [death, loss of family, property], and also habit, as with the Galileans, can no one learn from reason and demonstration that God has made all things in the universe, and the whole universe itself, to be unhindered and complete in itself, and the parts of it to serve the needs of the whole. (4.7.6)
| |
| * [[Numenius of Apamea]], second century, a possible allusion to Christians and even Christ may be contained in fragments of his treatises on the points of divergence between the Academicians and Plato, on the Good (in which according to Origen, Contra Celsum, iv. 51, he makes an allusion to Jesus Christ)<ref>http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/origen164.html</ref>
| |
| * [[Galen|Claudius Galenus (Galen)]] (A.D. 129 - 200) Galen may reference Christ and his followers; From Galen, De differentiis pulsuum (On the pulse), iii, 3. The work is listed in De libris propriis 5, and seems to belong between 176-192 AD, or possibly even 176-180 "One might more easily teach novelties to the followers of Moses and Christ than to the physicians and philosophers who cling fast to their schools"<ref>https://books.google.com/books?id=NmZ7Q1-8QkEC&pg=PA274&lpg=PA274&dq=One+might+more+easily+teach+novelties+to+the+followers+of+Moses+and+Christ+than+to+the+physicians+and+philosophers+who+cling+fast+to+their+schools&source=bl&ots=Iu54l5PSMP&sig=Q8nlSJJRzBzUrAgqCeupkpIHjP8&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwic_umTobXPAhVGw2MKHe7sAU0Q6AEIHjAA#v=onepage&q=One%20might%20more%20easily%20teach%20novelties%20to%20the%20followers%20of%20Moses%20and%20Christ%20than%20to%20the%20physicians%20and%20philosophers%20who%20cling%20fast%20to%20their%20schools&f=false</ref>
| |
| | |
| ====James Ossuary====
| |
| {{Main article|James Ossuary}}
| |
| There is a limestone burial box from the 1st century known as the [[James Ossuary]] with the Aramaic inscription, "James, son of Joseph, brother of Jesus." The authenticity of the inscription was challenged by the [[Israel Antiquities Authority]], who filed a complaint with the Israeli police. In 2012, the owner of the ossuary was found not guilty, with the judge ruling that the authenticity of the ossuary inscription had not been proven either way.<ref>{{cite news | author = Lorenzi, Rossella | title = Trial Does Not Settle 'Brother of Jesus' Controversy | work = Discovery News | date = March 14, 2012 | url = http://news.discovery.com/history/archaeology/james-ossuary-120314.htm}}</ref> It has been suggested it was a forgery.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Ayalon, A., Bar-Matthews, M., & Goren, Y. | year = 2004 | title = Authenticity examination of the inscription on the ossuary attributed to James, brother of Jesus | journal = Journal of Archaeological Science | volume = 31 | issue = 8 | pages = 1185–1189 | doi=10.1016/j.jas.2004.03.001}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ==Christian sources==
| |
| Various books, memoirs and stories were written about Jesus by the early Christians. The most famous are the gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. All but one of these are believed to have been written within 50–70 years of the death of Jesus, with the [[Gospel of Mark]] believed to be the earliest, and the last the [[Gospel of John]].<ref>Geoffrey Blainey; A Short History of Christianity; Viking; 2011; pp.xix-xx & pp.46-47</ref><ref>Mack, Burton L. (1996)"Who Wrote the New Testament: the making of a Christian Myth"(Harper One)</ref> Blainey writes that the oldest surviving record written by an early Christian is a short letter by [[St Paul]]: the [[First Epistle to the Thessalonians]], which appeared about 25 years after the death of Jesus.<ref>Geoffrey Blainey; A Short History of Christianity; Viking; 2011; pp. pp.46-47</ref> This letter, while important in describing issues for the development of Gentilic Christianity, contains little of significance for understanding the life of the historic Jesus.<ref>Buetz, Jeffrey J.(2005), "The Brother of Jesus and the Lost Teachings of Christianity".(Inner Traditions)</ref>
| |
| | |
| [[Bart Ehrman]], [[Robert Eisenman]] and others critical of traditional Christian views, in assessing the problems involved in conducting historical Jesus research, say the Gospels are full of discrepancies, were written decades after Jesus' death, by authors who had not witnessed any events in Jesus' life. They go on to say the Gospels were authored not by eyewitnesses who were contemporary with the events that they narrate but rather by people who did not know Jesus, see anything he did, or hear anything he taught, and that the authors did not even share a language with Jesus. The accounts they produced are not disinterested; they are narratives produced by Christians who actually believed in Jesus, and were not immune from slanting the stories in light of their biases. Ehrman points out that the texts are widely inconsistent, full of discrepancies and contradictions in both details and larger portraits of who Jesus was.<ref>Ehrman, Bart D. (2010), "Jesus, Interrupted: Revealing the Hidden Contradictions in the Bible (And Why We Don't Know About Them)" (Harper One 1 Reprint edition (2 February 2010)).pg 143-144</ref><ref>Einsenman, Robert (2002), "james, the Brother of Jesus: The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls" (Watkins)</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Pauline epistles===
| |
| {{Main article|Pauline epistles}}
| |
| | |
| ====Overview====
| |
| [[File:P46.jpg|thumb|150px|A page from [[2 Corinthians]] in [[Papyrus 46]], c. CE 200]]
| |
| In the context of Christian sources, even if all other texts are ignored, the [[Pauline epistles]] can provide some information regarding Jesus.<ref name="Tuckett126"/><ref name=McK38 /> This information does not include a narrative of the life of Jesus, and refers to his existence as a person, but adds few specific items apart from his death by crucifixion.<ref name=Furnish43>Victor Furnish in ''Paul and Jesus'' edited by Alexander J. M. Wedderburn 2004 (Academic Paperback) {{ISBN|0567083969}} pages 43-44</ref> This information comes from those letters of Paul whose authenticity is not disputed.<ref name=McK38>''Jesus Christ in History and Scripture'' by Edgar V. McKnight 1999 {{ISBN|0865546770}} page 38</ref> Paul was not a companion of Jesus and claims his information comes from the holy spirit acquired after Jesus' death.<ref>From Jesus to Christianity, San Francisco: HarperCollins, 2004 pg 4</ref>
| |
| | |
| Of the thirteen letters that bear Paul's name, seven are considered authentic by almost all scholars, and the others are generally considered [[Pseudepigraphy|pseudepigraphic]].<ref name=EerdDunn>''Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible'' by James D. G. Dunn (19 Nov 2003) {{ISBN|0802837115}} page 1274 "There is general scholarly agreement that seven of the thirteen letters beariing Pau's name are authentic, but his authorship of the other six cannot be taken for granted... Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians and Philomen are certainly Paul's own."</ref><ref name=Aune9>''The Blackwell Companion to The New Testament'' by David E. Aune {{ISBN|1405108258}} page 9 "... seven of the letters attributed to Paul are almost universally accepted as authentic (Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians, Philomen)..."</ref><ref name=Perkins4 >Pheme Perkins, ''Reading the New Testament: An Introduction'' (Paulist Press, 1988), {{ISBN|0809129396}} pp. 4-7.</ref><ref name=Adams94/> The 7 undisputed letters (and their approximate dates) are: [[1 Thessalonians]] (c. 51 CE), [[Philippians]] (c. 52-54 CE), [[Epistle to Philemon|Philemon]] (c. 52-54 CE), [[1 Corinthians]] (c. 53-54 CE), [[Epistle to the Galatians|Galatians]] (c. 55 CE), [[2 Corinthians]] (c. 55-56 CE) and [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] (c. 55-58 CE).<ref name=EerdDunn/><ref name=Perkins4 /><ref name=Adams94/> The authenticity of these letters is accepted by almost all scholars, and they have been referenced and interpreted by early authors such as [[Origen]] and [[Eusebius]].<ref name=Aune9/><ref name=Gorday>Peter Gorday in ''Eusebius, Christianity, and Judaism'' by Harold W. Attridge 1992 {{ISBN|0814323618}} pages 139-141</ref>
| |
| | |
| Given that the Pauline epistles are generally dated to CE 50 to CE 60, they are the earliest surviving Christian texts that include information about Jesus.<ref name=Adams94/> These letters were written approximately twenty to thirty years after the generally accepted time period for the death of Jesus, around CE 30-36.<ref name=Adams94/> The letters were written during a time when Paul recorded encounters with the disciples of Jesus, e.g. [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Galatians#1:18|Galatians 1:18]] states that several years after his conversion Paul went to Jerusalem and stayed with Apostle Peter for fifteen days.<ref name=Adams94>Edward Adams "Paul, Jesus and Christ" in ''The Blackwell Companion to Jesus'' edited by Delbert Burkett 2010 {{ISBN|140519362X}} pages 94-96</ref> During this time, Paul disputed the nature of Jesus' message with Jesus's brother James, concerning the importance of adhering to kosher food restrictions and circumcision, important features of determining Jewish identity.<ref>Buetz, Jeffrey (op cit)</ref><ref>Eisenman, Robert (op cit)</ref>
| |
| | |
| The Pauline letters were not intended to provide a narrative of the life of Jesus, but were written as expositions of Christian teachings.<ref name=Adams94/><ref name=JRDunn143/> In Paul's view, the earthly life of Jesus was of a lower importance than the theology of his death and resurrection,a theme that permeates Pauline writings.<ref name=DunnPaul>James D. G. Dunn "Paul's understanding of the death of Jesus" in ''Sacrifice and Redemption'' edited by S. W. Sykes (3 Dec 2007) Cambridge University Press {{ISBN|052104460X}} pages 35-36</ref> However, the Pauline letters clearly indicate that for Paul Jesus was a real person (born of a woman as in Gal 4.4) who had disciples (1 Corinthians 15.5), who was crucified (as in 1 Corinthians 2.2 and Galatians 3.1) and who resurrected from the dead (1 Corinthians 15.20, Romans 1.4 and 6.5, Philippians 3:10-11).<ref name=Tuckett126/><ref name=McK38/><ref name=Adams94/><ref name=DunnPaul /> And the letters reflect the general concept within the early Gentillic Christian Church that Jesus existed, was crucified and was raised from the dead.<ref name=Tuckett126/><ref name=Adams94/>
| |
| | |
| The references by Paul to Jesus do not in themselves prove the existence of Jesus, but they do establish that the existence of Jesus was the accepted norm within the early Christians (including the Christian community in Jerusalem, given the references to collections there) twenty to thirty years after the death of Jesus, at a time when those who could have been acquainted with him could still be alive.<ref>''Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey'' by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 {{ISBN|0805444823}} pages 441-442</ref><ref>''Encyclopedia of Theology: A Concise Sacramentum Mundi'' by Karl Rahner 2004 {{ISBN|0860120066}} page 31</ref>
| |
| | |
| ====Specific references====
| |
| The seven Pauline epistles that are widely regarded as authentic include the following information that along with other historical elements are used to study the historicity of Jesus:<ref name=Tuckett126/><ref name=McK38/>
| |
| | |
| [[File:Papyrus 27.png|thumb|110px|Early 3rd century copy of [[Epistle to the Romans]] from [[Papyrus 27]]]]
| |
| * ''Existence of Jesus'': That in Paul's view Jesus existed and was a Jew is based on [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Galatians#4:4|Galatians 4:4]] which states that he was "born of a woman" and [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Romans#1:3|Romans 1:3]] that he was "born under the law".<ref name=Tuckett126/><ref name=McK38/><ref name=Furnish19/> Some scholars such as [[Paul Barnett (bishop)|Paul Barnett]] hold that this indicates that Paul had some familiarity with the circumstances of the birth of Jesus, but that is not shared among scholars in general.<ref name=JRDunn143>''Jesus Remembered: Christianity in the Making'' by James D. G. Dunn (29 Jul 2003) {{ISBN|0802839312}} page 143</ref><ref name=Barn95>''Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times'' by Paul Barnett 2002 {{ISBN|0830826998}} pages 95-96</ref> However, the statement does indicate that Paul had some knowledge of and interest in Jesus' life before his crucifixion.<ref name=JRDunn143/>
| |
| * ''Disciples and brothers'': [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/1 Corinthians#15:5|
| |
| 1 Corinthians 15:5]] states that Paul knew that Jesus had 12 disciples, and considers Peter as one of them.<ref name=Tuckett126/><ref name=Furnish19/><ref>''Paul and Scripture'' by Steve Moyise (1 Jul 2010) {{ISBN|080103924X}} page 5</ref> [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/1 Corinthians#1:12|1 Corinthians 1:12]] further indicates that Peter was known in [[Corinth]] before the writing of [[1 Corinthians]], for it assumes that they were familiar with Cephas/Peter.<ref>''Paul, Antioch and Jerusalem'' by Nicholas Taylor 1991 {{ISBN|1850753318}} page 177</ref><ref name=VernK74>''The Tapestry of Early Christian Discourse'' by Vernon K. Robbins (10 Oct 1996) {{ISBN|0415139988}} pages 74-75</ref> The statement in 1 Corinthians 15:5 indicates that "the twelve" as a reference to the [[twelve apostles]] was a generally known notion within the early Christian Church in Corinth and required no further explanation from Paul.<ref name=JRDunn507>''Jesus Remembered: Christianity in the Making'' by James D. G. Dunn (29 Jul 2003) {{ISBN|0802839312}} page 507</ref> [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Galatians#1:18|Galatians 1:18]] further states that Paul personally knew Peter and stayed with him in Jerusalem for fifteen days, about three years after his conversion.<ref name=MateraGal65>''Galatians'' by Frank J. Matera 2007 {{ISBN|0814659721}} Pages 65-66</ref> It also implies that Peter was already known to the Galatians and required no introduction.<ref>''Galatians'' by Martinus C. de Boer 2011 {{ISBN|0664221238}} page 121</ref> [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/1 Corinthians#9:5|1 Corinthians 9:5]] and [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Galatians#1:19|Galatians 1:19]] state that Jesus had brothers, one being called James, whom Paul met or "saw."<ref name=Tuckett126/><ref name=Tuckett126/><ref name=Furnish43/><ref name=Furnish19/> James was claimed by early Christian writers as Origen and Eusebius to have been the leader of the followers of Jesus, after his brother's death, and to have been the first bishop, or [[archbishop|bishop of bishops]] in Jerusalem.
| |
| | |
| * ''Betrayal and rituals'': That Jesus was betrayed and established some traditions such as the [[Eucharist]] are derived from [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/1 Corinthians#11:23|1 Corinthians 11:23-25]] which states: "The Lord Jesus in the night in which he was betrayed took bread; and when he had given thanks, he brake it, and said, This is my body, which is for you: this do in remembrance of me.".<ref name=Tuckett126/><ref name=Furnish19/>
| |
| * ''Crucifixion'': The Pauline letters include several references to the crucifixion of Jesus e.g. [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/1 Corinthians#11:23|
| |
| 1 Corinthians 11:23]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/1 Corinthians#2:2|
| |
| 1 Corinthians 2:2]] and [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Galatians#3:1|
| |
| Galatians 3:1]] among others.<ref name=Tuckett126/><ref name=Furnish19/> The death of Jesus forms a central element of the Pauline letters.<ref name=DunnPaul/> [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/1 Thessalonians#2:15|1 Thessalonians 2:15]] places the responsibility for the death of Jesus on some Jews.<ref name=Tuckett126/><ref name=Furnish19/> Moeover the statement in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/1 Thessalonians#2:14|1 Thessalonians 2:14-16]] about the Jews "who both killed the Lord Jesus" and "drove out us" indicates that the death of Jesus was within the same time frame as the persecution of Paul.<ref name=Eddy46>''The Jesus legend: a case for the historical reliability of the synoptic gospels' by Paul R. Eddy, Gregory A. Boyd 2007 {{ISBN|0-8010-3114-1}} pages 46-47</ref>
| |
| | |
| * ''Burial'': [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/1 Corinthians#15:4|1 Corinthians 15:4]] and [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Romans#6:4|Romans 6:4]] state that following his death Jesus was [[empty tomb|buried]] (but does not mention a tomb).<ref name=Furnish19>''Jesus according to Paul'' by Victor Paul Furnish 1994 {{ISBN|0521458242}} pages 19-20</ref> This reference is then used by Paul to build on the theology of resurrection, but reflects the common belief at the time that Jesus was buried after his death.<ref>''1 Corinthians'' by Richard Oster 1995 {{ISBN|0899006337}} page 353</ref><ref>''Apostle Paul: His Life and Theology'' by Udo Schnelle (1 Nov 2005) {{ISBN|0801027969}} pages 329-330</ref>
| |
| | |
| The existence of only these references to Jesus in the Pauline epistles has given rise to criticism of them by [[G. A. Wells]], who is generally accepted as a leader of the movement to deny the historicity of Jesus.<ref name=WellsT49 /><ref name=Casey39 /> When Wells was still denying the existence of Jesus, he criticized the Pauline epistles for not mentioning items such as John the Baptist or Judas or the trial of Jesus and used that argument to conclude that Jesus was not a historical figure.<ref name=WellsT49/><ref name= Casey39>'Jesus of Nazareth: An independent historian's account of his life and teaching'' by Maurice Casey page 39-40</ref><ref name= Dunn29>''The Evidence for Jesus'' by James D. G. Dunn (1 Jan 1986) {{ISBN|0664246982}} page 29</ref>
| |
| | |
| [[James D. G. Dunn]] addressed Wells' statement and stated that he knew of no other scholar that shared that view, and most other scholars had other and more plausible explanations for the fact that Paul did not include a narrative of the life of Jesus in his letters, which were primarily written as religious documents rather than historical chronicles at a time when the life story of Jesus could have been well known within the early Church.<ref name= Dunn29 /> Dunn states that despite Wells' arguments, the theories of the non-existence of Jesus are a "thoroughly dead thesis".<ref name=DunnPaul />
| |
| | |
| While Wells no longer denies the existence of Jesus, he has responded to Dunn, stating that his [[arguments from silence]] not only apply to Paul but all early Christian authors, and that he still has a low opinion of early Christian texts, maintaining that for Paul Jesus may have existed a good number of decades before.<ref name=WellsT49>''Can We Trust the New Testament?'' by George Albert Wells 2003 {{ISBN|0812695674}} pages 49-50</ref>
| |
| | |
| ====Pre-Pauline creeds====
| |
| {{Main article|Creed}}
| |
| The Pauline letters sometimes refer to creeds, or confessions of faith, that predate their writings.<ref name=Kruse41 /><ref name=BAune /><ref name=RMartin57 >''Worship in the Early Church'' by Ralph P. Martin 1975 {{ISBN|0802816134}} pages 57-58</ref> For instance [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/1 Corinthians#15:3|1 Corinthians 15:3-4]] reads: "For what I received I passed on to you as of first importance: that Christ died for our sins according to the Scriptures, that he was buried, that he was raised on the third day according to the Scriptures."<ref name=Kruse41 >''Paul's Letter to the Romans'' by Colin G. Kruse (1 Jul 2012) {{ISBN|0802837433}} pages 41-42</ref> [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Romans#1:3|Romans 1:3-4]] refers to Romans 1:2 just before it which mentions an existing gospel, and in effect may be treating it as an earlier creed.<ref name=Kruse41 /><ref name=BAune />
| |
| | |
| One of the keys to identifying a pre-Pauline tradition is given in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/1 Corinthians#15:11|1 Corinthians 15:11]]<ref name=RMartin57 />
| |
| | |
| : Whether then [it be] I or they, so we preach, and so ye believed.
| |
| | |
| Here Paul refers to others before him who preached the creed.<ref name=RMartin57 /> James Dunn states that [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/1 Corinthians#15:3|1 Corinthians 15:3]] indicates that in the 30s Paul was taught about the death of Jesus a few years earlier.<ref>''Jesus Remembered: Christianity in the Making'', Volume 1 by James D. G. Dunn (29 Jul 2003) {{ISBN|0802839312}} pages 142-143</ref>
| |
| | |
| The Pauline letters thus contain Christian creed elements of pre-Pauline origin.<ref>Neufeld, ''The Earliest Christian Confessions'' (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964) p. 47
| |
| *Reginald H. Fuller, ''The Formation of the Resurrection Narratives'' (New York: Macmillan, 1971) p. 10
| |
| *Wolfhart Pannenberg, ''Jesus – God and Man'' translated Lewis Wilkins and Duane Pribe (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1968) p. 90
| |
| *Oscar Cullmann, ''The Earlychurch: Studies in Early Christian History and Theology'', ed. A. J. B. Higgins (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1966) p. 64
| |
| *Hans Conzelmann, ''1 Corinthians'', translated James W. Leitch (Philadelphia: Fortress 1969) p. 251
| |
| *Bultmann, ''Theology of the New Testament'' vol. 1 pp. 45, 80–82, 293
| |
| *R. E. Brown, ''The Virginal Conception and Bodily Resurrection of Jesus'' (New York: Paulist Press, 1973) pp. 81, 92</ref> The antiquity of the creed has been located by many Biblical scholars to less than a decade after Jesus' death, originating from the Jerusalem apostolic community.<ref>see Wolfhart Pannenberg, ''Jesus – God and Man'' translated Lewis Wilkins and Duane Pribe (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1968)p. 90; Oscar Cullmann, ''The Early church: Studies in Early Christian History and Theology'', ed. A. J. B. Higgins (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1966) p. 66–66; R. E. Brown, ''The Virginal Conception and Bodily Resurrection of Jesus'' (New York: Paulist Press, 1973) pp. 81; Thomas Sheehan, ''First Coming: How the Kingdom of God Became Christianity'' (New York: Random House, 1986 pp. 110, 118; Ulrich Wilckens, ''Resurrection'' translated A. M. Stewart (Edinburgh: Saint Andrew, 1977) p. 2; Hans Grass, ''Ostergeschen und Osterberichte'', Second Edition (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1962) p96; Grass favors the origin in Damascus.</ref> Concerning this creed, Campenhausen wrote, "This account meets all the demands of historical reliability that could possibly be made of such a text,"<ref>Hans von Campenhausen, "The Events of Easter and the Empty Tomb," in ''Tradition and Life in the Church'' (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1968) p. 44</ref> whilst A. M. Hunter said, "The passage therefore preserves uniquely early and verifiable testimony. It meets every reasonable demand of historical reliability."<ref>Archibald Hunter, ''Works and Words of Jesus'' (1973) p. 100</ref>
| |
| | |
| These creeds date to within a few years of Jesus' death, and developed within the Christian community in Jerusalem.<ref name=Leith12 >''Creeds of the Churches, Third Edition'' by John H. Leith (1 Jan 1982) {{ISBN|0804205264}} page 12</ref> Although embedded within the texts of the New Testament, these creeds are a distinct source for [[Early Christianity]].<ref name=BAune >''The Blackwell Companion to The New Testament'' edited by David E. Aune 2010 {{ISBN|1405108258}} page 424</ref> This indicates that existence and death of Jesus was part of Christian belief a few years after his death and over a decade before the writing of the Pauline epistles.<ref name=Leith12 />
| |
| | |
| ===Gospels===
| |
| {{see also|Historical Jesus|Synoptic problem|Historicity of the canonical Gospels}}
| |
| [[Image:P52 recto.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Rylands Library Papyrus P52|P52]], a papyrus fragment from a codex (''c''. 90–160), one of the earliest known New Testament manuscripts.]]
| |
| The four canonical gospels, [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]], [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]], [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]], and [[Gospel of John|John]], are the main sources for the biography of Jesus' life, the teachings and actions attributed to him.<ref name=Blomb442 >''Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey'' by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 {{ISBN|0-8054-4482-3}} pages 441-442</ref><ref name=Fahlbusch52 >''The encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 4'' by Erwin Fahlbusch, 2005 {{ISBN|978-0-8028-2416-5}} pages 52-56</ref><ref name=CEvans465 >The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary'' by Craig A. Evans 2003 {{ISBN|0-7814-3868-3}} pages 465-477</ref> Three of these (Matthew, Mark, and Luke) are known as the [[synoptic Gospels]], from the Greek σύν (syn "together") and ὄψις (opsis "view"), given that they display a high degree of similarity in content, narrative arrangement, language and paragraph structure.<ref>''New Testament Theology by Paul Haffner'' 2008 {{ISBN|88-902268-0-3}}-page 135</ref><ref>''A Guide to the Gospels'' by W. Graham Scroggie 1995 {{ISBN|0-8254-3744-X}} page 128</ref> The presentation in the fourth canonical gospel, i.e. John, differs from these three in that it has more of a thematic nature rather than a narrative format.<ref name=Moloney3 /> Scholars generally agree that it is impossible to find any direct literary relationship between the synoptic gospels and the Gospel of John.<ref name=Moloney3 >''The Gospel of John'' by Francis J. Moloney, Daniel J. Harrington 1998 {{ISBN|0-8146-5806-7}}-page 3</ref>
| |
| | |
| The authors of the New Testament generally showed little interest in an absolute [[chronology of Jesus]] or in synchronizing the episodes of his life with the secular history of the age.<ref name=Rahner730 >''Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi'' by [[Karl Rahner]] 2004 {{ISBN|0-86012-006-6}} pages 730-731</ref> The gospels were primarily written as theological documents in the context of [[early Christianity]] with the chronological timelines as a secondary consideration.<ref name=Wiarda75 >''Interpreting Gospel Narratives: Scenes, People, and Theology'' by Timothy Wiarda 2010 {{ISBN|0-8054-4843-8}} pages 75-78</ref> One manifestation of the gospels being theological documents rather than historical chronicles is that they devote about one third of their text to just seven days, namely the last week of the life of Jesus in Jerusalem.<ref name=Turner613 >''Matthew'' by David L. Turner 2008 {{ISBN|0-8010-2684-9}}-page 613</ref> Although the gospels do not provide enough details to satisfy the demands of modern historians regarding exact dates, scholars have used them to reconstruct a number of portraits of Jesus.<ref name=Rahner730 /><ref name=Wiarda75 /><ref name=sanders3>Sanders, E. P. ''The historical figure of Jesus'' {{ISBN|0140144994}} Penguin, 1993. p. 3</ref> However, as stated in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#21:25|John 21:25]] the gospels do not claim to provide an exhaustive list of the events in the life of Jesus.<ref name=Gerald3 >''[[Christology: A Biblical, Historical, and Systematic Study of Jesus]]'' by [[Gerald O'Collins]] 2009 {{ISBN|0-19-955787-X}} pages 1-3</ref>
| |
| | |
| Scholars have varying degrees of certainty about the historical reliability of the accounts in the gospels, and the only two events whose historicity is the subject of almost universal agreement among scholars are the [[Baptism of Jesus|baptism]] and [[crucifixion of Jesus]].<ref name=JDunn339/> Scholars such as [[E.P. Sanders]] and separately [[Craig A. Evans]] go further and assume that two other events in the gospels are historically certain, namely that Jesus [[Twelve apostles|called disciples]], and caused a [[Cleansing of the Temple|controversy at the Temple]].<ref name="Evans37"/>
| |
| | |
| Ever since the [[Augustinian hypothesis]], scholars continue to debate the order in which the gospels were written, and how they may have influenced each other, and several hypothesis exist in that regard, e.g. the [[Markan priority]] hypothesis holds that the Gospel of Mark was written first ''c.'' 70 CE.<ref>''Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible'' edited by James D. G. Dunn (19 Nov 2003) {{ISBN|0802837115}} pages 1064-1065</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Meier|first=John P.|authorlink=John P. Meier|title=A Marginal Jew|publisher=Doubleday|year=1991|location=New York City|pages=v.2 955–6|isbn=0-385-46993-4}}</ref> In this approach, Matthew is placed at being sometime after this date and Luke is thought to have been written between 70 and 100 CE.<ref name="Harris Gospels">[[Stephen L. Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. "The Gospels" p. 266-268</ref> However, according to the competing, and more popular, [[Q source]] hypothesis, the gospels were not independently written, but were derived from a common source called Q.<ref>''The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: Q-Z'' by Geoffrey W. Bromiley (31 Jan 1995) {{ISBN|0802837840}} pages 1-3</ref><ref>''The New Testament: History, Literature, Religion'' by Gerd Theissen 2003 ISBN page 31</ref> The [[two-source hypothesis]] then proposes that the authors of Matthew and Luke drew on the Gospel of Mark as well as on Q.<ref>''Three Views on the Origins of the Synoptic Gospels'' by Robert L. Thomas 2002 {{ISBN|0825438381}} page 35</ref>
| |
| | |
| The gospels can be seen as having three separate lines: A literary line which looks at it from a textual perspective, secondly a historical line which observes how Christianity started as a renewal movement within Judaism and eventually separated from it, and finally a theological line which analyzes Christian teachings.<ref>''The New Testament: History, Literature, Religion'' by Gerd Theissen 2003 ISBN page x</ref> Within the historical perspective, the gospels are not simply used to establish the existence of Jesus as sources in their own right alone, but their content is compared and contrasted to non-Christian sources, and the historical context, to draw conclusions about the historicity of Jesus.<ref name=Tuckett126/><ref name=Kellum104/><ref name=Voorst7>Van Voorst, Robert E. (2000). Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.. {{ISBN|0-8028-4368-9}}-page 7</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Early Church fathers===
| |
| [[File:Eusebius of Caesarea.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Eusebius of Caesarea]]]]
| |
| Two possible [[Church Fathers|patristic sources]] that may refer to eye witness encounters with Jesus are the early references of [[Papias of Hierapolis|Papias]] and [[Quadratus of Athens|Quadratus]], reported by [[Eusebius of Caesarea]] in the 4th century.<ref name=Bauck15/><ref name=Carr22/>
| |
| | |
| The works of Papias have not survived, but [[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]] quotes him as saying:<ref name=Bauck15>Richard Bauckham ''Jesus and the Eyewitnesses'' (Eerdmans, 2006), {{ISBN|0802831621}} pp. 15–21.</ref>
| |
| | |
| :"…if by chance anyone who had been in attendance on the elders should come my way, I inquired about the words of the elders – that is, what according to the elders Andrew or Peter said, or Philip, or Thomas or James, or John or Matthew or any other of the Lord’s disciples, and whatever Aristion and the elder John, the Lord’s disciples, were saying."
| |
| | |
| [[Richard Bauckham]] states that while Papias was collecting his information (''c''. 90), Aristion and the elder John (who were Jesus' disciples) were still alive and teaching in [[Asia minor]], and Papias gathered information from people who had known them.<ref name=Bauck15/> However, the exact identity of the "elder John" is wound up in the debate on the authorship of the [[Gospel of John]], and scholars have differing opinions on that, e.g. [[Jack Finegan]] states that Eusebius may have misunderstood what Papias wrote, and the elder John may be a different person from the author of the fourth gospel, yet still a disciple of Jesus.<ref name=Finegan42 >''The archeology of the New Testament'' by Jack Finegan (1 Jan 1981) {{ISBN|0709910061}} pages 42-43</ref> [[Gary Burge]], on the other hand sees confusion on the part of Eusebius and holds the elder John to be different person from the apostle John.<ref>''Interpreting the Gospel of John'' by [[Gary M. Burge]] (1 Sep 1998) {{ISBN|0801010217}} pages 52-53</ref>
| |
| | |
| The letter of Quadratus (possibly the first Christian apologist) to emperor [[Hadrian]] (who reigned 117 – 138) is likely to have an early date and is reported by [[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]] in his ''Ecclesiastical History'' 4.3.2 to have stated:<ref>''Eusebius: The Church History'' by Eusebius and Paul L. Maier (31 May 2007) {{ISBN|082543307X}} page 119</ref>
| |
| | |
| :"The words of our Savior were always present, for they were true: those who were healed, those who rose from the dead, those who were not only seen in the act of being healed or raised, but were also always present, not merely when the Savior was living on earth, but also for a considerable time after his departure, so that some of them survived even to our own times."<ref name=Bauckham53 >Richard Bauckham, ''Jesus and the Eyewitnesses'' (Cambridge: Eerdmans, 2006), pp. 53-54</ref>
| |
| | |
| By "our Savior" Quadratus means Jesus and the letter is most likely written before CE 124.<ref name=Carr22>''The Early Christian Church: Volume 2, The Second Christian Century by Philip Carrington (11 Aug 2011) {{ISBN|0521157382}} pages 22-23</ref> Bauckham states that by "our times" he may refer to his early life, rather than when he wrote (117–124), which would be a reference contemporary with Papias.<ref>Richard Bauckham, ''Jesus and the Eyewitnesses'' (Cambridge: Eerdmans, 2006), pp. 53l.</ref> Bauckham states that the importance of the statement attributed to Quadratus is that he emphasizes the "eye witness" nature of the testimonies to interaction with Jesus.<ref name=Bauckham53 /> Such "eye witness statements" abound in early Christian writings, particularly the [[pseudonymous]] Christian [[Apocrypha]], Gospels and Letters, in order to give them credibility.
| |
| | |
| ===Gnostic and apocryphal texts===
| |
| {{see also|Gnostic gospels|New Testament apocrypha}}
| |
| A number of later Christian texts, usually dating to the second century or later, exist as [[New Testament apocrypha]], among which the [[gnostic gospels]] have been of major recent interest among scholars.<ref name=vvoorst215 >Van Voorst, Robert E (2000). ''Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence''. Eerdmans Publishing. {{ISBN|0-8028-4368-9}}-page 215-217</ref> The 1945 discovery of the [[Nag Hammadi library]] created a significant amount of scholarly interest and many modern scholars have since studied the gnostic gospels and written about them.<ref name=Keener52 /> However, the trend among the 21st century scholars has been to accept that while the gnostic gospels may shed light on the progression of early Christian beliefs, they offer very little to contribute to the study of the historicity of Jesus, in that they are rather late writings, usually consisting of sayings (rather than narrative, similar to the hypothesised Q documents), their authenticity and authorship remain questionable, and various parts of them rely on components of the New Testament.<ref name=Keener52 /><ref name=BartProphet72/> The focus of modern research into the historical Jesus has been away from gnostic writings and towards the comparison of Jewish, [[Greco-Roman]] and [[canonical gospel|canonical]] Christian sources.<ref name=Keener52 >''The Historical Jesus of the Gospels'' by Craig S. Keener 2012 {{ISBN|0802868886}} pages 52-54</ref><ref name=BartProphet72>''Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium'' by Bart D. Ehrman 2001 {{ISBN|019512474X}} pages 72-78</ref>
| |
| | |
| As an example, [[Bart Ehrman]] states that gnostic writings of the [[Gospel of Thomas]] (part of the Nag Hammadi library) have very little value in historical Jesus research, because the author of that gospel placed no importance on the physical experiences of Jesus (e.g. his crucifixion) or the physical existence of believers, and was only interested in the secret teachings of Jesus rather than any physical events.<ref name=BartProphet72 /> Similarly, the [[Apocryphon of John]] (also part of the Nag Hammadi library) has been useful in studying the prevailing attitudes in the second century, and questions of authorship regarding the [[Book of revelation]], given that it refers to [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Revelation#1|Revelation 1:19]], but is mostly about the [[Ascension of Jesus|post ascension]] teachings of Jesus in a vision, not a narrative of his life.<ref>''The Book of Revelation'' by [[Robert H. Mounce]] 1997 {{ISBN|0802825370}} page 11</ref> Some scholars such as Edward Arnal contend that the Gospel of Thomas continues to remain useful for understanding how the teachings of Jesus were transmitted among early Christians, and sheds light on the development of early Christianity.<ref>''The Symbolic Jesus'' by William Edward Arnal 2005 {{ISBN|1845530071}} pages 60-70</ref>
| |
| | |
| There is overlap between the sayings of Jesus in the apocryphal texts and canonical Christian writings, and those not present in the canonical texts are called [[agrapha]]. There are at least 225 agrapha but most scholars who have studied them have drawn negative conclusions about the authenticity of most of them and see little value in using them for historical Jesus research.<ref name=vvoorst183 /> Robert Van Voorst states that the vast majority of the agrapha are certainly inauthentic.<ref name=vvoorst183 /> Scholars differ on the number of authentic agrapha, some estimating as low as seven as authentic, others as high as 18 among the more than 200, rendering them of little value altogether.<ref name=vvoorst183 >Van Voorst, Robert E (2000). ''Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence''. Eerdmans Publishing. {{ISBN|0-8028-4368-9}}-page 183</ref> While research on apocryphal texts continues, the general scholarly opinion holds that they have little to offer to the study of the historicity of Jesus given that they are often of uncertain origin, and almost always later documents of lower value.<ref name=vvoorst215 />
| |
| | |
| ==See also==
| |
| * [[Christ myth theory]]
| |
| * [[Census of Quirinius]], the enrollment of the Roman provinces of Syria and Judaea for tax purposes taken in the year 6/7.
| |
| * [[Cultural and historical background of Jesus]]
| |
| * [[Historical Jesus]]
| |
| * [[Historical reliability of the Gospels]]
| |
| * [[Quest for the historical Jesus]]
| |
| * [[The Bible and history]]
| |
| | |
| ==Notes==
| |
| {{Reflist|30em}}
| |
| | |
| ==References==
| |
| {{Refbegin|colwidth=30em}}
| |
| *[[Raymond E. Brown|Brown, Raymond E.]] (1997) ''An Introduction to the New Testament''. Doubleday {{ISBN|0-385-24767-2}}
| |
| *Daniel Boyarin (2004). ''Border Lines. The Partition of Judaeo-Christianity''. University of Pennsylvania Press.
| |
| *Doherty, Earl (1999). ''The Jesus Puzzle. Did Christianity Begin with a Mythical Christ? : Challenging the Existence of an Historical Jesus''. {{ISBN|0-9686014-0-5}}
| |
| *Drews, Arthur & Burns, C. Deslisle (1998). ''The Christ Myth'' (Westminster College-Oxford Classics in the Study of Religion). {{ISBN|1-57392-190-4}}
| |
| *[[Alvar Ellegård|Ellegård, Alvar]] ''Jesus – One Hundred Years Before Christ: A Study in Creative Mythology'', (London 1999).
| |
| *France, R.T. (2001). ''The Evidence for Jesus''. Hodder & Stoughton.
| |
| *Freke, Timothy & Gandy, Peter. ''The Jesus Mysteries - was the original Jesus a pagan god?'' {{ISBN|0-7225-3677-1}}
| |
| *George, Augustin & Grelot, Pierre (Eds.) (1992). ''Introducción Crítica al Nuevo Testamento''. Herder. {{ISBN|84-254-1277-3}}
| |
| *{{Cite book|first=Helmut|last=Koester|title=Ancient Christian Gospels|location= Harrisburg, PA|publisher=Continuum|isbn=0-334-02450-1|year=1992}}
| |
| *Gowler, David B. (2007). ''What Are They Saying About the Historical Jesus?''. Paulist Press.
| |
| *[[Michael Grant (author)|Grant, Michael]], ''Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels'', Scribner, 1995. {{ISBN|0-684-81867-1}}
| |
| *Meier, John P., ''[[John P. Meier#A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus|A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus]]'', [[Anchor Bible Series|Anchor Bible Reference Library]], Doubleday
| |
| : (1991), v. 1, ''The Roots of the Problem and the Person'', {{ISBN|0-385-26425-9}}
| |
| : (1994), v. 2, ''Mentor, Message, and Miracles'', {{ISBN|0-385-46992-6}}
| |
| : (2001), v. 3, ''Companions and Competitors'', {{ISBN|0-385-46993-4}}
| |
| : (2009), v. 4, ''Law and Love'', {{ISBN|978-0-300-14096-5}}
| |
| *Mendenhall, George E. (2001). ''Ancient Israel's Faith and History: An Introduction to the Bible in Context''. {{ISBN|0-664-22313-3}}
| |
| *[[Vittorio Messori|Messori, Vittorio]] (1977). ''Jesus hypotheses''. St Paul Publications. {{ISBN|0-85439-154-1}}
| |
| *Mykytiuk, Lawrence (2015). "Did Jesus Exist? Searching for Evidence Beyond the Bible." Biblical Archaeology Society, Bible History Daily section. December 2014. http://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/people-cultures-in-the-bible/jesus-historical-jesus/did-jesus-exist/
| |
| *New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha, New Revised Standard Version. (1991) New York, Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-528356-2}}
| |
| *{{Cite book|last=Price|first=Robert M.|authorlink=Robert M. Price|title=Deconstructing Jesus|year=2000|publisher=Prometheus Books|location=Amherst, N.Y.|isbn=1-57392-758-9}}
| |
| *{{Cite book|last=Price|first=Robert M.|authorlink=Robert M. Price|title=The Incredible Shrinking Son of Man: How Reliable is the Gospel Tradition?|year=2003|publisher=Prometheus Books|location=Amherst, N.Y.|isbn=1-59102-121-9}}
| |
| *Wells, George A. (1988). ''The Historical Evidence for Jesus''. Prometheus Books. {{ISBN|0-87975-429-X}}
| |
| *Wells, George A. (1998). ''The Jesus Myth''. {{ISBN|0-8126-9392-2}}
| |
| *Wells, George A. (2004). ''Can We Trust the New Testament?: Thoughts on the Reliability of Early Christian Testimony''. {{ISBN|0-8126-9567-4}}
| |
| *Wilson, Ian (2000). ''Jesus: The Evidence'' (1st ed.). Regnery Publishing.
| |
| {{Refend}}
| |
| | |
| {{Jesus footer}}
| |
| {{The Bible and history}}
| |
| | |
| {{DEFAULTSORT:Historicity of Jesus}}
| |
| [[Category:Christ myth theory]]
| |